On March 18th of 1871, a horn was blown marking the start of battle in Paris. The Paris
Commune forces, primarily consisting of working class people, had occupied the city hall.
Although this occupation only lasted for about two months, it was considered as a milestone for
left wing movements in contemporary politics. It had a significant influence on history; Marx even
considered it as a strong evidence for his Ccommunist theory. For anarchists, Paris Commune also
represented an experiment for anarchy. Because the Paris Commune did not serve as a
government, rather it leaned towards building a highly democratic and autonomous government
basing in Paris. Even though it ended shortly, it left a lasting impact on the some anarchists as they
find their own ways to commemorate the glorious movement in their own ways. Among them,
Neo-Impressionist Maximilien Luce painted A Paris Street in 1871 as his commemoration.
Furthermore, author Alastair Wright an author, discusses Maximilien Luce and his pieces,
particularly A Paris Street in 1871. In his article, he admits that even after more than one hundred
years, A Paris Street in 1871 still strikes him strange in two aspects: history per se and art history.
In retrospect of the history, the failure of Paris Commune still remains as one of the
awkward topics in the history. Quotes from Wikipedia: “Although many leftist leaders such as
Marx embraced it, other assessments were highly critical”. Thus, due to this huge contrast of
attitudes towards Paris Commune, Luce’s portrait of Paris Commune did not receive as much
praise as portraits about July Revolution. In art history, Luce and his close friend, Signac, were two
of the most famous Neo-Impressionists. As Signac focused more on how to innovate the use of
Pointillism in Impressionism in his mid-career, Luce used A Paris Street in 1871 as a rejoinder to
him, in order to criticize the lack of attention in the brutal realities in Neo-Impressionism.
In the composition of the painting, Luce portrays five corpses lying on a street in Paris. The
warm lighting and choice of color indicate that the scene is taking place in the early morning.
Wright believes that the time setting reflects the morning is very close to the occurrence of the Paris
Commune, and the dead bodies are the results of small combats across the capital. Wright also
discourses that choosing Paris Commune as the subject of the painting was unique considering
most of the other combats, such as July Revolution, depicted victory instead of defeats. Unlike
Paris Commune, some other successful combats or revolutions such as July Revolution offer a lot
of victorious themes or subjects to the painters. He then compares A Paris Street in 1871 to a painting called Liberty Leading People, claiming that they are similar in composition but contrast in the meaning. In the comparison,
he states that the former portrays a union of citizens, bourgeois, workers, etc. during July
Revolution, and it was supported by people from all classes in the country; while the Paris
Commune is only consisted of working-class people and it failed. Therefore, portraits about
victories of July Revolution contains larger significance for historical events painters since the
viewers are always more excited to see victories than defeats. Wright indicates that, Luce, as an
anarchist, deliberately painted A Paris Street in 1871 to reflect back on history and to raise
awareness on the former glory of Paris Commune; Luce wanted to commemorate the historical
event by bringing politics into the world of art. The painting is also intended to pick up the
connection between neo-impressionism and politics. Before 19th century, there were paintings
regarding contemporary politics. However, these themes somehow disappeared simultaneously.
Thus, Luce wanted to commemorate the historical event by bringing themes of politics into the
world of art.
In order to highlight Luce’s usage of Pointillism and themes in his pieces, Wright aligns
Luce’s paintings with those of Signac. He suggests that the difference in political views would
partly differ in the painter’s choice of themes. Signac, as a representative of bourgeois
impressionists, often depicts bourgeois life in his paintings, such as the interior decorations or
characters. For example, in Sunday, he depicts a bourgeois couple standing in the distance in a
well-decorated room in which lies a huge carpet and a bookshelf that reaches the ceiling. Wright
also writes that Luce “generates clear social reality…as the sign of liberation” and he, “without
concern for profit”, would try his best to contrast bourgeois and official convention by portraying
social reality in his art pieces.
However, as A Paris Street in 1971 is thought of as a response from Luce to the
Commune, it was more related to the tradition of political engagement. Luce knew he was taking a
risk, because many other works failed at attempts to do the same job. As the return of Commune
almost seems impossible nowadays. The painting A Paris Street in 1871 seems more like an
acknowledgement than a sign of return to the tradition. Moreover, the issue about Paris Commune
is whether it is a revolutionary movement, signifying the ideal state of human society, or it simply
was an amorphous movement led by impulsive working class.
Friday, April 27, 2012
Wednesday, April 25, 2012
Tuesday, April 24, 2012
The Dancers of Degas
Edgar Degas was one of the foremost impressionist and realist painters of the 1800s. The Dancer paintings done by Edgar Degas are arguably some of his most complex works he’d ever accomplish. In the article Dancers By Edgar Degas written by Jill DeVonyar and Richard Kendall, the authors say that, “Dancers is one of the most chromatically complex, densely worked, and thematically nuanced pastels made by Degas at any point in his career.” They ascribed the success of these paintings to the use of a medium which had already been deemed useless, along with the choice of color, the method of application, and the figures, and by doing so created some of the most life like and hauntingly beautiful paintings of his time.
For the medium, or the material that is being painted on, Degas chose to use pastels on canvas. The use of pastels had previously been written off, as the end result was often times not permanent and could apparently easily disintegrate. Degas managed to put layer over layer over layer of pastel color and made something spectacular. He put so many on sometime that his canvas had “the surface appearance of a cork board mat.” In later dancer painting, this technique went to an extreme when he layered 4 different pastel colors on top of each other, creating a almost stone like quality on the canvas, far from the dusty, unattractive way it was said to look.
Degas subjects for the Dancer paintings were of course dancers. He obtained all his models from the dancers of the French Opera House. He did not usually capture them however, glorified on stage, but back at the barre and in their rehearsals doing everyday tasks. He would often take the most beautiful positions and make them monochromatic, only to put them in color later in another piece. The way he depicted the wings of the stage was one of the most revelled pieces that he ever created. A peek backstage into the wings was a rare view, and the way Degas did it was by showing them not even paying attention to the stage, and even sometime not even their full bodies, just little glimpses of calves and feet. Edgar Degas created this quality to his dancers that was not previously shown in any works of art. He made his dancers life-like. Not sullied by the pounds of powder and makeup worn in the style of the day. He had this ability to look past all that and actually see the women as they were. The dancers had these beautiful flesh tones despite the stage make-up that was very unlike other paintings of the day such as the landscapes, people and building done by Paul Cézanne. Degas went so far as to actually become an Abonné, wealthy men who were famous for being allowed backstage and paid ‘special’ attention to the dancers, to get the pieces and poses he wanted.
Edgar Degas went out of his way to make sure that all of his paintings had a certain integrity. At the time he was born, impressionist artists were all that was around. Artists from Monet to de Goya were all painting in the same style as Degas, but what set him apart was that he refused to settle to other standards just because people thought the end result would be unsatisfactory. His dancer paintings are hailed now as some of the most realistic depictions of that setting today. Degas Dancers had a truth to them that went beyond the surface, literally and figuratively, that still captivates onlookers and make them wonder about the mysterious life of the beautiful dancers alighting the canvas.
Works Cited
DeVonyar, Jill, and Kendall. "“Dancers” By Edgar Degas." Record Of The Princeton
University Art Museum 66.(2007): 30-40. Art Full Text (H.W. Wilson). Web. 24 Apr. 2012.
For the medium, or the material that is being painted on, Degas chose to use pastels on canvas. The use of pastels had previously been written off, as the end result was often times not permanent and could apparently easily disintegrate. Degas managed to put layer over layer over layer of pastel color and made something spectacular. He put so many on sometime that his canvas had “the surface appearance of a cork board mat.” In later dancer painting, this technique went to an extreme when he layered 4 different pastel colors on top of each other, creating a almost stone like quality on the canvas, far from the dusty, unattractive way it was said to look.
Degas subjects for the Dancer paintings were of course dancers. He obtained all his models from the dancers of the French Opera House. He did not usually capture them however, glorified on stage, but back at the barre and in their rehearsals doing everyday tasks. He would often take the most beautiful positions and make them monochromatic, only to put them in color later in another piece. The way he depicted the wings of the stage was one of the most revelled pieces that he ever created. A peek backstage into the wings was a rare view, and the way Degas did it was by showing them not even paying attention to the stage, and even sometime not even their full bodies, just little glimpses of calves and feet. Edgar Degas created this quality to his dancers that was not previously shown in any works of art. He made his dancers life-like. Not sullied by the pounds of powder and makeup worn in the style of the day. He had this ability to look past all that and actually see the women as they were. The dancers had these beautiful flesh tones despite the stage make-up that was very unlike other paintings of the day such as the landscapes, people and building done by Paul Cézanne. Degas went so far as to actually become an Abonné, wealthy men who were famous for being allowed backstage and paid ‘special’ attention to the dancers, to get the pieces and poses he wanted.
Edgar Degas went out of his way to make sure that all of his paintings had a certain integrity. At the time he was born, impressionist artists were all that was around. Artists from Monet to de Goya were all painting in the same style as Degas, but what set him apart was that he refused to settle to other standards just because people thought the end result would be unsatisfactory. His dancer paintings are hailed now as some of the most realistic depictions of that setting today. Degas Dancers had a truth to them that went beyond the surface, literally and figuratively, that still captivates onlookers and make them wonder about the mysterious life of the beautiful dancers alighting the canvas.
Works Cited
DeVonyar, Jill, and Kendall. "“Dancers” By Edgar Degas." Record Of The Princeton
University Art Museum 66.(2007): 30-40. Art Full Text (H.W. Wilson). Web. 24 Apr. 2012.
Does Graffiti Belong in the Classroom?
Catherine Auten
Chung points out that students will be more receptive to Banksy’s work because it is modern and they can relate to it. He suggests that teachers use this to their advantage and get students more involved in a dialogue about art. Chung claims that because Banksy’s art is so controversial and obviously subversive, it forces observers to have specific thoughts and feelings about the piece. This is the perfect starting point for students to begin learning what to look for in pieces of art and how to talk about what they see.
Chung encourages teachers to show students specific Banksy works like “Graffiti Removal Hotline,” “Kissing Policemen,” and “Sweeping it Under the Carpet.” He believes that these pieces have obvious and unmistakable messages, so they are perfect starting points for students. He then gives teachers a list of questions to ask the students about the piece. These questions start with asking students to simply observe the piece of art and report what they see. The questions then ask for some analysis of the piece and then ask questions about what the piece means for the culture they live in.
At the end of the article, Chung suggests that teachers encourage students to make some art of their own. His suggestion is that they draw an image onto a t-shirt and then wear the t-shirt and explain to their classmates the cultural and artistic meaning of their work. The questions and activities that Chung suggests gnaw at the boundaries of legality, art and vandalism and force students to think broadly and critically about the world they live in. Banksy is the perfect artist for this type of dialogue with students. Not only is Banksy “cool,” but he also creates controversial and skilled works of art.
Works Cited
Chung, Seng Kuan. "An Art of Resistance From the Street to the Classroom." Art Education 62.4 (July 2009): 25-32. Art Full Text. Web.
Sunday, April 22, 2012
The Political Intentions of Pablo Picasso
Jordan Bailey
Pablo Picasso, the renowned and influential Spanish artist, created over 16,840 works in his lifetime. Included in that number are paintings, drawings, sculptures, and ceramic works. Picasso’s art has been widely studied, analyzed, and criticized since he emerged as a prominent artist of the 20th century. Many art historians and lovers of art have interpreted Picasso’s paintings in various manners throughout the years, and Lynda Morris’s exhibition in Liverpool aims to shed a new light on Picasso’s later works. For the last thirty years, Morris has been constructing an exhibition designed to illuminate the works of Picasso in a political light that has been largely ignored in recent years. Zoe Petersen, however, author of the article “Picasso: Peace and Freedom,” disagrees with the correlation that Morris attempts to draw between Picasso and politics, citing flaws in the exhibition’s major works such as The Charnel House, The Spaniards who Died for France, and The Rape of Sabine Women.
The inclusion of Picasso’s The Charnel House in Morris’s exhibition is intended to highlight the political intentions of Picasso in the 1940s. This painting responds to a film and photographs about the slaughter of a Spanish Republican family at the hands of the French during the Spanish Civil War. Morris argues that with this painting, “Picasso already had his eye on the relationship between painting and the mass media.” She goes on to claim that he “predates Warhol in his awareness” (Petersen). The Charnel House is commonly known as Picasso’s second major anti-war piece, after his 1937 painting, Guernica. The intent of The Charnel House was to cause outrage among the public, and Zoe Petersen argues that Picasso’s attempt blatantly fails and presents us instead with a “curiously unmoving image.” Petersen maintains that The Charnel House is simply a political reaction to a specific event, rather than the artist’s own perception of his life in political terms as is illustrated in Guernica. The Charnel House lacks a certain “depth and ambiguity” that is present in Guernica, according to Petersen.
Another work featured in Morris’s exhibition is Monument to the Spaniards who Died for France, a piece featuring an altar paying tribute to the dead Spaniards in World War II. The painting incorporates “a laurel-crowned bust on a draped plinth, a military bugle bearing the French colours, memento mori skull and bones, and, oddly, a couple of pot plants” (Petersen). The caricature-like construction of this work is said to illuminate the pretentiousness of the neo-classical style. Petersen argues that this piece does not support the theme of Morris’s exhibition, but disproves it by exposing to audiences that Picasso’s political movement was over by the time he painted Monument to the Spaniards who Died for France. Petersen explains that by the time this painting was finished at the end of World War II, Picasso had exhausted the use of political statements in his works and no longer found the theme urgent.
Another piece contained in the “Picasso: Peace and Freedom” exhibition is The Rape of Sabine Women. This painting illustrates Picasso’s correlation of suffering and surrender with the female gender. Morris argues that the women represented in this piece are an expression of fear of nuclear annihilation due to the Cuban missile crisis that was occurring at the time of the piece’s construction. Petersen agrees that Picasso probably felt the tension of the Cuban missile crisis during the 1960s, but argues that Picasso would still have painted The Rape of Sabine Women had the missile crisis not been happening. Petersen claims that the painting is a result of Picasso’s desire to take on Nicolas Poussin and Jacques-Louis David, two neo-classical French painters, rather than a consequence of the missile crisis.
Although Morris’s exhibition begs viewers to consider the political implications of Picasso’s works, many art historians disagree with the assumed correlation.
Works Cited:
Petersen, Zoe. "Picasso Peace and Freedom." Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. 24.6 (2010): 749-767. Web. 22 Apr. 2012. < http://ehis.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=3&hid=3&sid=280c28fe-725d-46f7-8ee1-36e1c4803ac3@sessionmgr15&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl
Wednesday, April 18, 2012
Tuesday, April 10, 2012
Monday, April 9, 2012
Tuesday, April 3, 2012
Monday, April 2, 2012
Tuesday, March 27, 2012
Sleep Away Disease
Scientists believe that sleep deprivation can cause loneliness, an illness that differs from depression. Loneliness is a health concern that often leads to a wide assortment of illnesses such as depression, bad heart pressure, and Alzheimer’s disease. Scientists have found that sleep quality, rather than sleep quantity, has a greater impact on one’s health. Poor sleep quality is more likely to lead to health problems, as well as sluggish, inactive days. When one habitually suffers from poor sleep quality, social interactions suffer, contributing to more serious complications. Using a series of scales and charts, scientists completed a study on the correlation between sleep and health, focusing on loneliness and depression. Scientists aim to discover whether or not poor sleep quality has a significant impact on one’s health.
Researchers conducted the study by putting an ad in the UCLA environs looking for willing participants for a study that would target ‘lifestyle, social contact and sleep quality’. 97 people (28 male, 69 female) were the right age, completed all the correct material and met the age requirements (ages 18-40). The researchers used a revised loneliness scale done by UCLA. The participants were asked ‘how often’ questions such as how do you feel completely alone or how often do you feel as if nobody understands you, and then told to respond on a scale of 1-4, 1 being never and 4 being always. The scores were then added to create a total score ranging from 20-80. Higher scores meant a higher thought of being lonely.
They were required to do the Social Rhythm Metric (SRM), which is a kind of diary that requires you to put down 17 specific activities that would happen during the day. These activities include what time you wake, what time you eat and your first interactions with people. The times these activities happened were then put into an algorithm based on a scale of 0-7. The way it’s set up is kind of like a chart that you fill in with times and names. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) was also used. This index measures things that could affect your sleep. The participants were asked questions about their sleep quality the month before and a score was created from their answers. it asks questions like during the past month how often could you not get to sleep in 30 minutes or how often did you feel too cold, too hot or pain. The last scale that the participants used was the Depression Anxiety and Stress scale (DASS). This scale measures the frequency and strength of bad or negative emotions the previous week. It presents statements that the person deems true or not. Statements used sound like ‘i felt i was close to panic or I found it difficult to relax’ in response to situations that had happened. The participants were asked to complete the SRM every day for 2 weeks, and all of the other tests were conducted inside a lab.
Most of the participants turned out to be normal, with a handful of them actually being in the severe to very severe range. They found that loneliness and depression, loneliness and sleep quality and sleep quality and depression had a significant positive correlation. So as predicted, loneliness, depression and sleep all have a weird sort of circle of life. Each affects others negatively regarding the person. I actually did all of the scales and metrics myself and was not surprised to find myself in league with the lower percent of people that don’t have such a good outlook on life. I’ll link the scales in here so you guys can take them and see how you fare on an optimism/pessimism scale.
The link now betwixt loneliness and a poor sleep quality has now been quantified with studies for our better understanding. Scientist have proven that there is a positive correlation between the quality of sleep received and all emotions after. Generally, if the quality of sleep is poor, then so will the emotional quality. Loneliness had a high and positive correlation to getting a lesser sleep quality. So one of the simplest ways to improve better life health is to just get good sleep.
Try these! :
DASS test
The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index
Friday, March 23, 2012
Pay to lose weight faster
On January 5, 2012, developers released an iPhone app called GymPact, which imposes fines when users do not reach workout goals. Similarly, one might be able to find the idea of this app in a research done a few years ago. Colvin and Zopf’s study supports the conclusion that other psychological tricks such as the presence of a workout buddy or monetary deducting actually help people to lose weight faster.
In the study, some researchers initiated a weight control program, in which they gathered 23 volunteers and placed them in a small office.“Work site” was used as environment settings tentatively for the first time, and the rationale behind it is that researchers expected office colleagues to be more important than total strangers, and thus created a more powerful influence. The subjects were divided into 2 groups: Money group and Social group. The subjects in Social Group simply weighed in every Friday, while subjects in the other group had to make out a check of 2 dollars additionally. At the end of the program, an averaged weight loss of 9 pounds achieved in the money group while it was 3.7 pounds for the other group.
What differed this weight control program from others were that the researchers not only employed a habitual environment (an office) for both groups of people, but also subtract money from the experimental group (Money group). As Abrahms and Allens have proved that the use of money deducting would typically change subjects’ eating behaviors. Therefore, for the Money group, the subjects were weighed every Friday. In the meantime, they were made to write checks dated to Fridays during the research period. The numbers on the checks started at 2, and increased 2 dollars week by week until 10 dollars, then decreased till zero which happened in the last week of the program time. Here, money worked as a stimulus of positive punishment, which meant as the amount of the money increased, subjects would achieve a greater success in weight loss. Meanwhile, the researchers also supposed the weight loss would decrease as the amount of deducting money decreased. On the other hand, as R.D. Colvin talked about the subjects were not self-conscious about their weight changes posted on charts in the article, it’s simply the social connections motivated them to lose weight. In the control group, (Social group), the subjects just meet once a week, but their weight changes were posted on charts right away. In other words, the weight changes showing to the public used positive reinforcement to suggest the subjects that they need to increase any losing-weight behaviors. For most of the subjects, the action of posting weight changes worked as a positive punishment.
At the conclusion, the researchers mapped out goals and actual achievements of two groups of participants respectively, and compared the results. The research results showed that all the subjects in the Money group were able to reach their goals except one person failed to do so for two weeks, while in the Social group only 2 participants were able to complete their goals. It is conclusive proved that work site is a feasible setting in weight changes programs, and it seemed that positive punishment had a strong influence on the subjects because the subjects felt like losing money.
In a follow-up observation, the weights of participants in money group returned to near pre-program weights. The researchers argued that this was because positive punishment tended to lost its efficacy faster than positive reinforcement. Thus, as the subjects were losing less money than before, their motivation decreased. Moreover, although results of social group appeared as weak right after the program ended, the participants actually continued losing weight in a longer observation. Besides, the subjects who lost weight efficiently in the first week managed to lose more both during and after the program.
Works Cited
In the study, some researchers initiated a weight control program, in which they gathered 23 volunteers and placed them in a small office.“Work site” was used as environment settings tentatively for the first time, and the rationale behind it is that researchers expected office colleagues to be more important than total strangers, and thus created a more powerful influence. The subjects were divided into 2 groups: Money group and Social group. The subjects in Social Group simply weighed in every Friday, while subjects in the other group had to make out a check of 2 dollars additionally. At the end of the program, an averaged weight loss of 9 pounds achieved in the money group while it was 3.7 pounds for the other group.
What differed this weight control program from others were that the researchers not only employed a habitual environment (an office) for both groups of people, but also subtract money from the experimental group (Money group). As Abrahms and Allens have proved that the use of money deducting would typically change subjects’ eating behaviors. Therefore, for the Money group, the subjects were weighed every Friday. In the meantime, they were made to write checks dated to Fridays during the research period. The numbers on the checks started at 2, and increased 2 dollars week by week until 10 dollars, then decreased till zero which happened in the last week of the program time. Here, money worked as a stimulus of positive punishment, which meant as the amount of the money increased, subjects would achieve a greater success in weight loss. Meanwhile, the researchers also supposed the weight loss would decrease as the amount of deducting money decreased. On the other hand, as R.D. Colvin talked about the subjects were not self-conscious about their weight changes posted on charts in the article, it’s simply the social connections motivated them to lose weight. In the control group, (Social group), the subjects just meet once a week, but their weight changes were posted on charts right away. In other words, the weight changes showing to the public used positive reinforcement to suggest the subjects that they need to increase any losing-weight behaviors. For most of the subjects, the action of posting weight changes worked as a positive punishment.
At the conclusion, the researchers mapped out goals and actual achievements of two groups of participants respectively, and compared the results. The research results showed that all the subjects in the Money group were able to reach their goals except one person failed to do so for two weeks, while in the Social group only 2 participants were able to complete their goals. It is conclusive proved that work site is a feasible setting in weight changes programs, and it seemed that positive punishment had a strong influence on the subjects because the subjects felt like losing money.
In a follow-up observation, the weights of participants in money group returned to near pre-program weights. The researchers argued that this was because positive punishment tended to lost its efficacy faster than positive reinforcement. Thus, as the subjects were losing less money than before, their motivation decreased. Moreover, although results of social group appeared as weak right after the program ended, the participants actually continued losing weight in a longer observation. Besides, the subjects who lost weight efficiently in the first week managed to lose more both during and after the program.
Works Cited
Abrahms, J.L., &Allen,G.J. Comparative effectiveness of situational programming, financial pay-offs and group pressure in weight reduction. Behavior Therapy, 1974, 5, 391-400
Buckle Up! An Experiment on Seat Belt Usage
Jordan Bailey
Each year, approximately 35,000 people die in motor vehicle accidents. About fifty percent of these people could be saved simply by wearing seat belts. Additionally, over 90% of drivers report feeling that seat belts are necessary and beneficial, but in practice, only 14% actually use seat belts (“James Madison University”). When safety belts are properly used, they save thousands of lives, yet many neglect to spend the few seconds it takes to fasten a seat belt. Luigi Pasto and Andrew G. Baker host an intervention to modify the behavior of seatbelt use among college students, as younger drivers are both less likely to wear their seat belts and more likely to be involved in motor vehicle accidents than their older counterparts. According to Pasto and Baker, results feedback and informational flyers given to the public during a five-day intervention increases seat belt use among young adults.
Drivers and front seat passengers in a particular parking lot on Montreal’s Vanier College campus were observed for four weeks. 2,285 total cars were observed; resulting in 2,285 drivers and 660 front seat passengers. For the first week, an observer monitored the uninterrupted behavior of the subjects with a video recorder from inside an attendant booth at the entrance of the parking lot. The observer recorded the subjects’ gender, approximate age, and whether or not they were wearing a seat belt. Cars were observed Monday through Friday during the hours of 3:30pm and 5:30pm, the time of day with the greatest traffic flow. The intervention took place during the second week of the experiment. Subjects were observed in the same manner during the same time period, but during this week experimenters attempted to modify the behavior of the subjects in two ways. First, a large poster was placed approximately 6 meters away from the attendance booth, where drivers must stop before entering the parking lot, displaying the percentage of people who wore their seat belt driving into the parking lot the previous day. The sign read “DRIVERS WEARING SEAT BELTS YESTERDAY, XX%,” and the percentage was changed daily to reflect the data from the previous day. Second, an informational flyer was placed on the windshield of every car in the parking lot on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday of the intervention week. The flyer had four components. The first area stated in bold lettering, “SEAT BELTS SAVE LIVES. BUCKLE UP PLEASE.” The second component of the flyer gave statistics on fatalities and injuries due to car accidents in Quebec, followed by a statement on the effectiveness of seat belts. The third section presented the message, “Whether or not you wear a seat belt may be your own business, but tell that to the family and friends of someone who has been injured in a car accident.” The final component of the flyer informed drivers that their seat belt usage was being monitored and explained the feedback sign. On the last day of the intervention phase, the distributed flyer contained the results of the experiment. During the final two weeks of the experiment, the feedback sign and flyers were removed and observers monitored the behavior of the drivers and front seat passengers.
At the conclusion of the experiment, Pasto and Baker observed a general increase in seat belt usage from both drivers and front seat passengers. For drivers, seat belt usage increased by 7%, from 64% at the baseline to 71% during the intervention. Seat belt usage increased by a whopping 18% for front seat passengers, from 49% at the baseline to 67% during the intervention. Both drivers and front seat passengers experienced a subtle decrease in seat belt usage after the intervention. For drivers, seat belt usage dropped to 68% and for passengers it dropped to 61%. However, in both cases, seat belt usage remained higher after the intervention than it was at the baseline. Additionally, more female drivers and front seat passengers were proven to wear seat belts than males. 75% of female drivers wear seat belts, whereas only 63% of male drivers do. Comparably, 66% of female passengers wear seat belts and only 52% of male passengers do.
Works Cited:
"Safety Belt Statistics." James Madison University. James Madison University, 21 oct 2004. Web. 23 Mar 2012. <http://www.jmu.edu/safetyplan/vehicle/generaldriver/safetybelt.shtml>.
Pasto, Luigi, and Andrew G. Baker. "Evaluation of a Brief Intervention for Increasing Seat Belt Use on a College Campus." Sage Journals. 25.3 (2011): n. page. Web. 23 Mar. 2012.
Each year, approximately 35,000 people die in motor vehicle accidents. About fifty percent of these people could be saved simply by wearing seat belts. Additionally, over 90% of drivers report feeling that seat belts are necessary and beneficial, but in practice, only 14% actually use seat belts (“James Madison University”). When safety belts are properly used, they save thousands of lives, yet many neglect to spend the few seconds it takes to fasten a seat belt. Luigi Pasto and Andrew G. Baker host an intervention to modify the behavior of seatbelt use among college students, as younger drivers are both less likely to wear their seat belts and more likely to be involved in motor vehicle accidents than their older counterparts. According to Pasto and Baker, results feedback and informational flyers given to the public during a five-day intervention increases seat belt use among young adults.
Drivers and front seat passengers in a particular parking lot on Montreal’s Vanier College campus were observed for four weeks. 2,285 total cars were observed; resulting in 2,285 drivers and 660 front seat passengers. For the first week, an observer monitored the uninterrupted behavior of the subjects with a video recorder from inside an attendant booth at the entrance of the parking lot. The observer recorded the subjects’ gender, approximate age, and whether or not they were wearing a seat belt. Cars were observed Monday through Friday during the hours of 3:30pm and 5:30pm, the time of day with the greatest traffic flow. The intervention took place during the second week of the experiment. Subjects were observed in the same manner during the same time period, but during this week experimenters attempted to modify the behavior of the subjects in two ways. First, a large poster was placed approximately 6 meters away from the attendance booth, where drivers must stop before entering the parking lot, displaying the percentage of people who wore their seat belt driving into the parking lot the previous day. The sign read “DRIVERS WEARING SEAT BELTS YESTERDAY, XX%,” and the percentage was changed daily to reflect the data from the previous day. Second, an informational flyer was placed on the windshield of every car in the parking lot on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday of the intervention week. The flyer had four components. The first area stated in bold lettering, “SEAT BELTS SAVE LIVES. BUCKLE UP PLEASE.” The second component of the flyer gave statistics on fatalities and injuries due to car accidents in Quebec, followed by a statement on the effectiveness of seat belts. The third section presented the message, “Whether or not you wear a seat belt may be your own business, but tell that to the family and friends of someone who has been injured in a car accident.” The final component of the flyer informed drivers that their seat belt usage was being monitored and explained the feedback sign. On the last day of the intervention phase, the distributed flyer contained the results of the experiment. During the final two weeks of the experiment, the feedback sign and flyers were removed and observers monitored the behavior of the drivers and front seat passengers.
At the conclusion of the experiment, Pasto and Baker observed a general increase in seat belt usage from both drivers and front seat passengers. For drivers, seat belt usage increased by 7%, from 64% at the baseline to 71% during the intervention. Seat belt usage increased by a whopping 18% for front seat passengers, from 49% at the baseline to 67% during the intervention. Both drivers and front seat passengers experienced a subtle decrease in seat belt usage after the intervention. For drivers, seat belt usage dropped to 68% and for passengers it dropped to 61%. However, in both cases, seat belt usage remained higher after the intervention than it was at the baseline. Additionally, more female drivers and front seat passengers were proven to wear seat belts than males. 75% of female drivers wear seat belts, whereas only 63% of male drivers do. Comparably, 66% of female passengers wear seat belts and only 52% of male passengers do.
Works Cited:
"Safety Belt Statistics." James Madison University. James Madison University, 21 oct 2004. Web. 23 Mar 2012. <http://www.jmu.edu/safetyplan/vehicle/generaldriver/safetybelt.shtml>.
Pasto, Luigi, and Andrew G. Baker. "Evaluation of a Brief Intervention for Increasing Seat Belt Use on a College Campus." Sage Journals. 25.3 (2011): n. page. Web. 23 Mar. 2012.
Thursday, March 22, 2012
Prevent Yourself from Biting Your Nails with a Bracelet
Catherine Auten
photo by: Maxwell GS
The researchers split up eighty college students participating in the study into two groups and within those groups were two subgroups. One group was given a vinyl wristband to wear reminding them of their commitment to stop biting their fingernails. Participants would need to cut the bands off to remove this reminder, thus excluding themselves from further participation. One subgroup wearing the vinyl bands had the bands placed on their wrists and the other subgroup had the bands placed on their ankles. The second group was instructed to paint bitter tasting nail enamel on at least twice daily to remind them of their commitment to stop biting their fingernails. One subgroup in the nail enamel group was asked to use colored nail enamel; the other subgroup was instructed to use clear enamel.
The goal of the experiment was to measure the effectiveness of the nonremovable reminder versus the “aversion” method, which required routine maintenance from the participants, over a six week period. The researchers then controlled for different types of personalities by creating a “Delay Discounting Task” which would indicate a participant's relative desire for immediate gratification. The Delay Discounting Task was tested with a self-control questionnaire. Finally, the researchers assessed the students’ risk aversion to determine their likelihood to accept an instant reward in exchange for an undesirable, yet delayed, outcome.
The participants were then allowed to go on with their daily lives wearing either the vinyl bands or the nail enamel for six weeks checking in three different times with the researchers. The researchers encouraged every participant to be conscious of their nail biting and to try to stop and think about their reminder to their commitment every time they felt the urge to bite their nails. Between the second and third sessions, 26 percent of the participants using the nail enamel had dropped out, while only 12 percent of the participants wearing the nonremovable band dropped out. However, when excluding the dropouts, the aversion method of using the bitter nail enamel resulted in less nail biting among participants.
Forty-two of the original participants attended a follow up assessment five months after completing the study. In this follow up, the researchers found that nail biting had increased from the initial completion of the study, but decreased from the participants’ original habits before the study. Unfortunately, researchers found no significant differences in the long-term success of those who used the vinyl bands versus those who used the aversion technique.
The study proved that a nonremovable reminder can be an effective way to curb the impulsive behavior of biting nails. Even better, the nonremovable reminder method proved to be more successful at preventing people from giving up on their behavior modification goals because it does not require people to remember to create a reminder for themselves. The nonremovable reminder solves the problem of “who will guard the guards.” So, for all of you forgetful nail-biters out there, the “nonremovable reminder” method may be the best and lowest maintenance way for you to stop the chewing.
Works Cited
Koritzky, Gilly, and Eldad Yechiam. "On the Value of Nonremovable Reminders for Behavior Modification." Behavior Modification 35.6 (2011): 511-30. Behavior Modification. Sage Journals, 26 Aug. 2011. Web. 22 Mar. 2012.
Monday, February 27, 2012
Human Embryo Debate
Jordan Bailey
Critics are outraged by a definition of “human embryo” given in October of 2011 by the European Court of Justice. The ECJ was asked by the German Supreme Court to give such a definition in an effort to clarify the European Union’s directive on the Legal Protection of Biotechnological Inventions established in July of 1998. The goal of the 1998 law was to determine what processes and inventions would be patented, or government protected, in the sensitive realm of genetic research. Specifically, the directive aims to establish the human body at all stages of development not patentable. For years, ambiguous wording in the directive allowed scientists and researchers to defy the true purpose of the regulation and continue with human embryo research, until the German Supreme Court requested a clarification of the document by the ECJ. Despite opposition from scientists and researchers, the ECJ had full rights to establish an official “human embryo” definition, on the grounds that it was a purely scientific definition used solely to clarify a pre-existing law, and was given by the most qualified group in Europe to make such a decision.
The ECJ ruled, “A human embryo…comprises an ovum activated to divide by fertilization or any artificial means. Moreover…any research involving human embryonic stem-cell lines is immoral, because such cell lines are originally derived from fertilized eggs” ("Nature" 291-92). Essentially, the ECJ claimed a human embryo to be any female reproductive cell that has been fertilized, and outlawed any research done on stem cells produced from such fertilized eggs. Many scientists and researchers reject this ruling because they fear it will limit future research possibilities, but a clarification of the term was unquestionably necessary. Scientists and lawmakers have been dancing around the subject for years, leaving enough ambiguity in wording to allow such research to continue despite rules and regulations that appear to state otherwise. A concrete definition of the term does not necessarily limit research; it simply provides a guideline for future laws on the sensitive subject to be based around. Opposers to the ECJ ruling are making unjust inferences about the decision without grounds to do so. Furthermore, the fact that the German Supreme Court asked the ECJ for this definition affirms the fact that it was necessary.
Scientists who disagree with the decision claim that the ECJ is not qualified to give such a definition based on the fact that its members are judicial figures and not scientists with experience in stem cells or patenting, but as the highest court in Europe the ECJ has every right to make this declaration. The members of the ECJ may not be scientists or stem cell experts, but they are trusted to interpret the most difficult laws and have dealt with controversial issues in the past. Such as their 2011 ruling on marketing products with traces of genetically modified organisms. Specifically, the ECJ ruled that a brand of honey containing pollen derived from genetically modified maize was illegal. The decision was controversial because many felt that it would drastically limit production possibilities of food producers. Controversial rulings are a difficult but necessary part of the judiciary process in order to maintain a definite collection of rules and regulations.
Moreover, the definition given by the ECJ was purely scientific. According to Volume 22, No. 4 of Human Reproduction, the ECJ’s definition is spot on biological. The definition given in this 2006 scholarly report states that a human embryo is “a discrete entity that has arisen from either the first mitotic division when fertilization of a human oocyte by a human sperm is complete or any other process that initiates organized development of a biological entity with a human nuclear genome or altered human nuclear genome that has the potential to develop up to, or beyond, the stage at which the primitive streak appears, and has not yet reached 8 weeks of development since the first mitotic division.” Essentially, the article declares a human embryo to be a “thing” with distinct existence produced by the division of a fertilized egg that has been fertilized by either natural or artificial means, and is younger than eight weeks old. This report ignores controversial debates and ethics and gives a purely biological definition of a human embryo, with which the ECJ’s definition is entirely in line.
A basic definition of a human embryo does not limit any potential scientific research; it simply establishes a guideline for rules and regulations of such research to be formed. Scientists and the public have jumped to interpretations of a ruling that simply discusses patent law.
Works Cited
Findlay, J.K., M.L. Gear, P.J. Illingworth, S.M. Junk, G. Kay, A.H. Mackerras, A. Pope, and H.S. Rothenfluh. "Human Embryo: A Biological Definition." Human Reproduction. 22.4 (2006): 905-11. Web. 27 Feb. 2012. <http://humrep.oxfordjournals.org/content/22/4/905.full.pdf>.
"Error of Judgement." Nature. 480.7377 (2011): 291-92. Web. 27 Feb. 2012. <http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v480/n7377/full/480291b.html>.
Critics are outraged by a definition of “human embryo” given in October of 2011 by the European Court of Justice. The ECJ was asked by the German Supreme Court to give such a definition in an effort to clarify the European Union’s directive on the Legal Protection of Biotechnological Inventions established in July of 1998. The goal of the 1998 law was to determine what processes and inventions would be patented, or government protected, in the sensitive realm of genetic research. Specifically, the directive aims to establish the human body at all stages of development not patentable. For years, ambiguous wording in the directive allowed scientists and researchers to defy the true purpose of the regulation and continue with human embryo research, until the German Supreme Court requested a clarification of the document by the ECJ. Despite opposition from scientists and researchers, the ECJ had full rights to establish an official “human embryo” definition, on the grounds that it was a purely scientific definition used solely to clarify a pre-existing law, and was given by the most qualified group in Europe to make such a decision.
The ECJ ruled, “A human embryo…comprises an ovum activated to divide by fertilization or any artificial means. Moreover…any research involving human embryonic stem-cell lines is immoral, because such cell lines are originally derived from fertilized eggs” ("Nature" 291-92). Essentially, the ECJ claimed a human embryo to be any female reproductive cell that has been fertilized, and outlawed any research done on stem cells produced from such fertilized eggs. Many scientists and researchers reject this ruling because they fear it will limit future research possibilities, but a clarification of the term was unquestionably necessary. Scientists and lawmakers have been dancing around the subject for years, leaving enough ambiguity in wording to allow such research to continue despite rules and regulations that appear to state otherwise. A concrete definition of the term does not necessarily limit research; it simply provides a guideline for future laws on the sensitive subject to be based around. Opposers to the ECJ ruling are making unjust inferences about the decision without grounds to do so. Furthermore, the fact that the German Supreme Court asked the ECJ for this definition affirms the fact that it was necessary.
Scientists who disagree with the decision claim that the ECJ is not qualified to give such a definition based on the fact that its members are judicial figures and not scientists with experience in stem cells or patenting, but as the highest court in Europe the ECJ has every right to make this declaration. The members of the ECJ may not be scientists or stem cell experts, but they are trusted to interpret the most difficult laws and have dealt with controversial issues in the past. Such as their 2011 ruling on marketing products with traces of genetically modified organisms. Specifically, the ECJ ruled that a brand of honey containing pollen derived from genetically modified maize was illegal. The decision was controversial because many felt that it would drastically limit production possibilities of food producers. Controversial rulings are a difficult but necessary part of the judiciary process in order to maintain a definite collection of rules and regulations.
Moreover, the definition given by the ECJ was purely scientific. According to Volume 22, No. 4 of Human Reproduction, the ECJ’s definition is spot on biological. The definition given in this 2006 scholarly report states that a human embryo is “a discrete entity that has arisen from either the first mitotic division when fertilization of a human oocyte by a human sperm is complete or any other process that initiates organized development of a biological entity with a human nuclear genome or altered human nuclear genome that has the potential to develop up to, or beyond, the stage at which the primitive streak appears, and has not yet reached 8 weeks of development since the first mitotic division.” Essentially, the article declares a human embryo to be a “thing” with distinct existence produced by the division of a fertilized egg that has been fertilized by either natural or artificial means, and is younger than eight weeks old. This report ignores controversial debates and ethics and gives a purely biological definition of a human embryo, with which the ECJ’s definition is entirely in line.
A basic definition of a human embryo does not limit any potential scientific research; it simply establishes a guideline for rules and regulations of such research to be formed. Scientists and the public have jumped to interpretations of a ruling that simply discusses patent law.
Works Cited
Findlay, J.K., M.L. Gear, P.J. Illingworth, S.M. Junk, G. Kay, A.H. Mackerras, A. Pope, and H.S. Rothenfluh. "Human Embryo: A Biological Definition." Human Reproduction. 22.4 (2006): 905-11. Web. 27 Feb. 2012. <http://humrep.oxfordjournals.org/content/22/4/905.full.pdf>.
"Error of Judgement." Nature. 480.7377 (2011): 291-92. Web. 27 Feb. 2012. <http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v480/n7377/full/480291b.html>.
So Precious, Yet So Vulnerable
When ENIAC, the first computer, occupied lab as big as a lecture hall in Pennsylvania University, his creator could never perceive some of its descendants are as thin as 0.6 cm after 70 years. Comparing the human history, 70 years are just a blink. But during this time period, not only computers themselves have been upgraded to smaller and faster models, but also their derivatives and they changed our society patterns a lot. With the creation of computers, our world production travels in a light speed. Working efficiency accelerates; it increases the productivity, etc. Thus it’s not exaggerating to say that computers are the greatest creation in the 20th century.
Recently in an issue of “Nature” magazine published on 26 January, one of the articles embraces computer technology by talking about how helpful they are in scientific surveys and researches. Particularly, he refers to those derivatives-portable electronic devices, such as iPad and other e-books tablets. Under such strong overwhelming appreciation, he seems to forget the vulnerabilities of computer technology and those devices, which include fragility in both physical way and security way; moreover it might falsely recorded the data. These vulnerabilities do not limit themselves in computer technology only. In 1967 Soyuz 1, a Soviet spaceship, was launched into space. On its way home, it crashed and killed one astronaut due to technical issues. It follows that advanced technology often requires extreme concentration and care, even a tiny mistake can cause a fatal catastrophe.
As those portable devices play an increasingly important role in helping us organize and manage documents and files, it is a heavy strike to us if they are simply not functioning. Michelle James, an Alzheimer's disease researcher at Stanford University, is quoted in the article that she already shifts all her research results and lab notes from standard lab books to on her iPad. She sounds so happy that as if she just gets released from the yokes of writing everything down. But imagine her iPad drops on the ground, all her precious materials will be lost. Unless she could wrap up her iPad with shockproof materials, or lay a thick rug on the floor where she stands, her iPad could easily be broken just after a few hits. Although she might argue she’d be very careful to prevent those hits happening to her iPad, it still happens regardless of how careful she could be. Numerous videos could be found on Youtube about how their iPads are broken after hitting on the ground from above 1 meter. “While trying to remove the cable it slipped out of my hand at no more than two feet from the floor. It hit the floor at one of its edges and sadly it cracked the complete screen.”, says an iPad owner from a website.
In this case, the screen is broken, but it’s ok because it’s easily replaceable. However, there are more iPad owners reporting how their iPads got completely broken after hitting on the ground. IPads, as well as other alike portable electronic devices are made of many tiny and exact elements. These elements are very fragile, and if any little one of them breaks, the whole machine will not be able to function properly. Among all the possible ways that could break iPads, hitting and water are the most powerful ones. As the hitting can break the elements, water jams the circuit inside iPads, which means a fatal damage.
As considered a more progressive operating system, Apple also installs iOS in iPads. On top of all the benefits iOS holds, it claims it is immune to all viruses. Because every virus was created to attack Windows operating system, it might take a while for the hackers to react to iOS. Nonetheless, the legend is about to be smashed now. A piece of recent news shows that a first virus was found in one iPad. What makes it this case worse is that after a careful examine, this virus was actually an iPhone virus infecting iPad. Since iPhones, MacBooks and iPads all run the iOS. Thus this consistency gives a bigger and smoother platform for the virus writers. Moreover, “Goatse Security, the white-hat hackers (an Internet hacker) that exposed the iPad's problems keeping email addresses under wraps, is back with a warning about additional risks to owners of the tablet.” Also, in a letter from Goatse Security to AT&T, these hackers claimed that they’ve found a bug, which they can use to attack the devices and the devices won’t be able to detect it. In numerous movies and films, one can find case alike that a hacker uses a virus to steal money from a bank or distort some tiny digit number in a research. In this case, would Michelle James be able to memorize all her data correctly? She might be able to do so if there is only a survey, what if the number increases to 100, or even 1000? While the public embraces the security of these devices, they forget how vulnerable they could become.
The two weakness of portable electronic devices discussed above are visible. When they happen to one’s devices, computers or laptops, one can detect them right away, and then look for solutions. In this case, my third point might seem a bit vague and bizarre. Just imagine a electronic device are physically unbroken, and it is free of any viruses, what happens if it records data incorrectly? Or what if they disobey our orders and process the data in a wrong way while functioning correctly? In 2004’s hit sci-fi movie “I, Robot”, humans are living in a world where robots do every piece of work. While robots are taking over more and more work, humans are becoming more and more dependent on them, and finally they decide to take over the world.
As considered a more progressive operating system, Apple also installs iOS in iPads. On top of all the benefits iOS holds, it claims it is immune to all viruses. Because every virus was created to attack Windows operating system, it might take a while for the hackers to react to iOS. Nonetheless, the legend is about to be smashed now. A piece of recent news shows that a first virus was found in one iPad. What makes it this case worse is that after a careful examine, this virus was actually an iPhone virus infecting iPad. Since iPhones, MacBooks and iPads all run the iOS. Thus this consistency gives a bigger and smoother platform for the virus writers. Moreover, “Goatse Security, the white-hat hackers (an Internet hacker) that exposed the iPad's problems keeping email addresses under wraps, is back with a warning about additional risks to owners of the tablet.” Also, in a letter from Goatse Security to AT&T, these hackers claimed that they’ve found a bug, which they can use to attack the devices and the devices won’t be able to detect it. In numerous movies and films, one can find case alike that a hacker uses a virus to steal money from a bank or distort some tiny digit number in a research. In this case, would Michelle James be able to memorize all her data correctly? She might be able to do so if there is only a survey, what if the number increases to 100, or even 1000? While the public embraces the security of these devices, they forget how vulnerable they could become.
The two weakness of portable electronic devices discussed above are visible. When they happen to one’s devices, computers or laptops, one can detect them right away, and then look for solutions. In this case, my third point might seem a bit vague and bizarre. Just imagine a electronic device are physically unbroken, and it is free of any viruses, what happens if it records data incorrectly? Or what if they disobey our orders and process the data in a wrong way while functioning correctly? In 2004’s hit sci-fi movie “I, Robot”, humans are living in a world where robots do every piece of work. While robots are taking over more and more work, humans are becoming more and more dependent on them, and finally they decide to take over the world.
Well, robots may seem a bit unrealistic in this case since we can’t even make an artificial robot. However, the cases about computers gone wrong are not a rare case anymore. Recently, due to computers errors, a prison released 1000 high-risk prisoners. It is confirmed that the errors are leaks in prisons evaluation programs, which misleads the prisons guards to falsely evaluate the prisoners' levels of risk. In this case, Michelle James might argue that the program writers should be more careful to prevent alike events happening again. However, programs are man-made, computers are man-made. As long as they are man-made, they are not flawless. Apple claimed they are flawless, but under such examination, a flaw can still be found.
Conclusion: At some point, I strongly agree computers are beneficial, and I embrace them for doing a great job to improve our life. However, it does not mean they are thoroughly perfect in every way. It is important to see that they have weaknesses, too. Either they do not perform properly or they are dropped on the ground by careless hands. Hence, I oppose complete dependence on them, and meanwhile we should keep on doing old practices like using pens and papers, because we can hardly and completely get rid of them nowadays.
Works Cited
Colon Raul, Ipad 2 very fragile, 2011. Web. 27 Feb 2012.
Richardson, Heather. "First IPad Virus Spotted.". Apple Tablet IPad, 6 Apr. 2010. Web. 27 Feb. 2012.
Perton, Marc. "Security Experts Claim IPad Vulnerable To New Attacks" The Consumerist. 14 June 2010. Web. 27 Feb. 2012.
Choney, Suzanne. "Computer Errors Free 450 High-risk Prisoners." Technolog. Web. 27 Feb. 2012.
Better Safe than Sorry
Photo by Dave W. Dave W. Clarke
Nonnative species can carry out peaceful lives, not harming the environment they have infiltrated. Most, however, will become invasive species. They will convert, just because they have the upper hand and it is only natural for them to take over. Species can invade easily when the environment is not prepared, and take over the resources it offers. Or even prey on the other species that it now cohabitates with. When a species can come and take all of the resources meant for other species, it spreads rapidly to other recesses of the ecosystem. This further displaces the native species and gives them less to live off of. Another large problem of unforeseen nonnative species is the fact that the species will have no natural predators. If there is nothing to contain the species and keep it them checked, then once again, the species is free to take over more space unrivaled.
The ecologists that wrote the nature opinion article state several cases of nonnative species that completely destroy other species and even create collateral damage for humans. Most of the examples they give aren’t denied. One of the examples they use is the one of the zebra mussel. The zebra mussel came to North America in 1980s and has caused the water utilities and power services millions (possibly billions) or dollars clogging up pipes. Avian malaria was another one they even used, saying that it killed over half the native species of Hawaii when it was brought over. These accusations are met unopposed by any sort of case for them. The ecologists do not make an attempt to refute the counter argument to their own thesis statement. This must mean that there are cases which there is no good side. It is just a purely harmful invasive species, and while there are some specific cases that were no doubt found and used voraciously in this article, most nonnative species do not have the good side to cover up the bad one.
The case was also made by these ecologists that the fact that since the environment is constantly changing, the addition of nonnative species cannot be affecting the ecosystems and environments of the native species that much. Environments are going to change not according to the species that are introduced to its population, but by the original population itself. Unknowingly, the environment may be weakening or strengthening itself to outside intruders. By saying that we should not be so concerned with nonnatives being invasive is to say that the environments can handle themselves. True, when an ecosystem changes, we may not need to try and restore it exactly back to the way it was before, but you can’t assume that just because something has benefits, that it doesn’t also have a bad side too. Especially when people introduce a new species on purpose to an ecosystem. Some nonnative species are known for having two faces, so to speak. For example, the Himalayan blackberry, which produces edible berries, was originally planted for food and for beauty. However, it increases fire risk and horribly crowds out native plants. So some species may have little impact on the world around them, but how many species are we willing to overlook because of the good? The world loses billions of dollars every year, just trying to combat species that are places they shouldn’t be.
Ecologists propose that we don’t stop our protection of ones we know are bad, but remember the ones that may have good potential. We would not be taking into account what happens if or when the nonnative species evolve though. The ecologists are saying the environments are changing so, why not let the ones that aren’t doing bad things to coexist. Well, as the environment changes, so do the species inside it. They adapt. And who’s to say that a nonnative species, with no predators and an outside advantage won’t evolve into something invasive and harmful? I believe the better plan would be better safe than sorry . To assume that most or all nonnative species have the potential to act on their ability to be invasive. Ecosystems created themselves based on a set of animals that weren’t supposed to change. The original ecosystems function the best at keeping up the biodiversity of the area, instead of relying on good nonnative species to do so. So yes, we should take into account the good, but we cannot automatically cancel out the possibility of the bad.
Works Cited
Davis, Mark A. "Don't Judge Species on Their Origins." Nature.com. Nature Publishing Group, 8 June 2011. Web. 27 Feb. 2012.
"Non-Native Species." JNCC. Web. 27 Feb. 2012.
"Pacific Northwest Research Station." Invasive Species. Web. 27 Feb. 2012.
Oil in the Arctic
Catherine Auten
Photo by: winkyintheuk
In a recent article published in Nature, the author proposed a way to prevent a disastrous oil spill from occurring in the Arctic (Nature, 5-6). The author claimed that the Arctic Council should create a binding agreement for all countries interested in drilling for oil in the Arctic (Nature, 5-6). However, the Arctic Council’s history shows its reluctance to create binding documents. Since its creation in 1996, the Council has only produced the Antarctic Treaty, declaring Antarctica a peaceful continent, and the Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue Agreement which binds the countries within the Arctic Circle to participate in efficient search and rescue procedures. Besides these two documents, the Arctic Council on serves as a forum for Arctic countries to discuss issues and possible solutions.
The Center for American Progress’s website posted an article expressing the Arctic Council’s inability to handle the pressing issue of drilling for oil because it lacks “unified, strategic management structures.” The author cited that, in the Council’s fifteen year history, it has only produced two binding documents; this lack of legislation proves that the Council lacks the ability to move quickly enough for the current drilling issue.
The most effective way to prevent an oil spill in the Arctic is for each country to set its own standards for drilling, making them responsible for the effects of a spill. If a spill occurred, the clean up and recovery would be the responsibility of the particular country where the spill occurred. This encourages each country to take the most extreme precautions when allowing oil companies to start drilling.
Canada has already developed a similar strategy to what I have outlined above. Canada requires that all ships weighing over three hundred tons, or any ship carrying potential pollutants, register before entering the Canadian territory. This plan is a non discriminatory way for Canada to police its territory. If countries wanted to begin drilling in Canadian territory, a similar plan of action could be devised.
By allowing individual nations to set their own standards for off-shore drilling, the countries within the Arctic can expect better protection against the dangers of a spill. While the Arctic Council could serve as a place for these countries to agree on a similar course of action, it should not be left up to the Arctic Council to create a binding agreement regarding oil interests in the Arctic; the issue is too pressing to rely on an organization which has consistently proved to be resistant to action.
Works Cited
"Poles Apart." Nature. 482. (2012): 5-6. Web. 27 Feb. 2012.
Thursday, February 16, 2012
A New Take on Alcoholics
Jordan Bailey
Photo by Lynda Giddens
This study focuses specifically on alcohol abusers who have co-occurring psychological disorders. An observational study was done on 44 male participants aged 18-55. Twenty-one of which were alcoholics, eight were alcoholics with anxiety disorders, and 15 participants were healthy controls. To account for confounding variables, the study excluded men who were on medication that has been shown to affect ERN, those who have had recent significant changes in their medical history, and those with psychotic symptoms.
The men were given a series of choice reaction tests. In this type of test, participants are asked to perform one action for a certain stimulus, and perform a different action for another. For example, participants are asked to push one button if a light turns red, and push another if they are shown a yellow light. These tests are graded based on skill, accuracy, and speed. Choice reaction test results revealed alcoholics scoring higher in harm avoidance, reward dependence, and persistence categories. Participants were also given Eriksen Flanker tests, a group of tests designed to measure the ability of patients to avoid impulses that are inappropriate for the context. In these tests, alcoholics exhibited longer reaction times but equivalent accuracy.
Test results, along with ERN amplitudes and personality characteristics, were compared between alcoholics and non- alcoholics. Additionally, the study explored the relationship between ERN amplitude and psychological disorders in alcoholics. The study’s findings are based largely on ERN measurements. Increased ERN, or a greater ability to control one’s behavior, is generally exhibited in those who have anxiety disorders. Decreased ERN, a lower ability to control one’s behavior, is often seen in patients with disorders such as ADHD or borderline personality disorder. ERN amplitudes, or the extent to which participants are aware of their errors, were increased for alcoholics and for alcoholics with anxiety disorders. These findings are in contrast with existing research on substance abusers.
Scientists previously thought that decreased ability to process error contributed to alcoholism, but this study shows that reduced action monitoring is in fact not a general component of substance abuse. Alcoholics who suffer from additional psychiatric disorders therefore create a novel category of alcoholics who exhibit different symptoms and therefore require different methods of treatment. These findings demand further research for patients addicted to other substances with psychological disorders.
Work Cited:
Schellekens, Arnt, Ellen de Bruijn, Christa van Lankveld, Wouter Hulstijn, Jan Buitelaar, Cor de Jong, and Robbert Verkes. "Alcohol dependence and anxiety increase error-related brain activity." Addiction Research Report 105.11 (2010): 1928-34. EBSCOhost. Web. 05 Feb 2012. <http://ehis.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=4&hid=101&sid=06e4be1d-6d23-49f8-92f5-9ebc55fc68c6@sessionmgr110&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl
Wednesday, February 15, 2012
The Secret Life of the Sumatran Tiger
Photo taken by Gakige
Constance Edmonds
Sumatran tigers are a shy species of animals. Actually most of the animals in the Sumatran rain forest are. It makes sense that the tigers of Sumatra (Panthera tigris sumatrae) would keep to themselves because they are quite high up on the endangered species list. They run in small packs, making them hard to find and even harder to track. And also they are still sought after for their pelts and meat. With these variables in mind, the fact that there is not a lot of knowledge or recording of how these tigers interact with their prey comes as no surprise. The Journal of Zoology thought this lack of information was interesting and so they went about accumulating all research done on the Sumatran tiger using motion activated cameras and how well it gets along with what it eats. Researchers think that the animal the tiger will most likely prey on are the ones who have no defenses.
For a time period, animals in the Sumatran rain forest could not be observed at all. When camera-trap equipment was invented, researchers then had a means to watch and record animals that were introverted. When scientists started researching with the camera-traps, they recorded oddly varied densities and even where they were occupying the landscapes. They did not however, really focus on the tiger-prey interactions. Nothing on prey was given much thought in fact. There was not much about what type of prey they stalked, nor where they lived. So to get information on what the tigers were eating, researches focused on what species were near the tigers and had some correlation to the tiger population. Something else that would help would be cross referencing activity patterns between prey species and the tigers. In other words, seeing where things a tiger would eat cross paths with the tiger daily. Interestingly enough though, to date, no research on this has been done.
How they got their findings is they spent a great deal of time in a very large park. Kerinci Seblat National Park (KNSP) covers 4 territories or provinces in the central west area of Sumatra. This area in Sumatra is actually known as a ‘Level 1 Tiger Conservation Landscape’, because it is believed to hold probably one of the best survival chances for the endangered tigers. Unfortunately the tigers are not even safe there. Poaching and deforestation due to farming threaten to expend the tiger species permanently. Four different studies, working from 2004 to 2007, set up camera-trap equipment in the park to collect data on the tigers and their supposed prey. The cameras were infrared, or in other terms they were heat activated. Every time something passed one that had a body temperature, the camera turned on. The cameras were places by trails left by tiger-sized animals. They were left alone, but checked every two weeks to get their film changed.
The results recorded from these cameras over the course of the years actually surprised the researchers a little. From the beginning it had made the most sense for the tiger to be attacking tapir (an almost pig like animal). Tapir are reasonably sized for the Sumatran tiger, and they also do not have any sort of tusk, horn or sharp protrusion to hurt a tiger with. But tigers were not found to be hunting the tapir as often as they thought. They instead were found to mostly be hunting Muntjac (a smaller, more adorable deer). They figured out that the reason for this occurrence was that tapir are found to be most active during the night, as in late night. Tapir are almost completely nocturnal. While occasionally a tiger will be out at this time, it’s quite dark and for most of them they are not really going anywhere of importance. Muntjac, poor creatures, are most active at the same time that the tigers are active, dawn and dusk. This makes them prime target to be tiger prey.
Sumatran tigers are beautiful creatures that are unfortunately on the endangered species list. Timid animals, not much information was know about them and how they interact with other animals and prey around them. With this study, not just tiger-prey interactions were found, but also activity patterns and knowledge on where they live. Hopefully with this new addition to the small amount of intelligence previously researched, the Sumatran tiger can slowly make a comeback out of endangerment.
Works Cited
Sumatran tigers are a shy species of animals. Actually most of the animals in the Sumatran rain forest are. It makes sense that the tigers of Sumatra (Panthera tigris sumatrae) would keep to themselves because they are quite high up on the endangered species list. They run in small packs, making them hard to find and even harder to track. And also they are still sought after for their pelts and meat. With these variables in mind, the fact that there is not a lot of knowledge or recording of how these tigers interact with their prey comes as no surprise. The Journal of Zoology thought this lack of information was interesting and so they went about accumulating all research done on the Sumatran tiger using motion activated cameras and how well it gets along with what it eats. Researchers think that the animal the tiger will most likely prey on are the ones who have no defenses.
For a time period, animals in the Sumatran rain forest could not be observed at all. When camera-trap equipment was invented, researchers then had a means to watch and record animals that were introverted. When scientists started researching with the camera-traps, they recorded oddly varied densities and even where they were occupying the landscapes. They did not however, really focus on the tiger-prey interactions. Nothing on prey was given much thought in fact. There was not much about what type of prey they stalked, nor where they lived. So to get information on what the tigers were eating, researches focused on what species were near the tigers and had some correlation to the tiger population. Something else that would help would be cross referencing activity patterns between prey species and the tigers. In other words, seeing where things a tiger would eat cross paths with the tiger daily. Interestingly enough though, to date, no research on this has been done.
How they got their findings is they spent a great deal of time in a very large park. Kerinci Seblat National Park (KNSP) covers 4 territories or provinces in the central west area of Sumatra. This area in Sumatra is actually known as a ‘Level 1 Tiger Conservation Landscape’, because it is believed to hold probably one of the best survival chances for the endangered tigers. Unfortunately the tigers are not even safe there. Poaching and deforestation due to farming threaten to expend the tiger species permanently. Four different studies, working from 2004 to 2007, set up camera-trap equipment in the park to collect data on the tigers and their supposed prey. The cameras were infrared, or in other terms they were heat activated. Every time something passed one that had a body temperature, the camera turned on. The cameras were places by trails left by tiger-sized animals. They were left alone, but checked every two weeks to get their film changed.
The results recorded from these cameras over the course of the years actually surprised the researchers a little. From the beginning it had made the most sense for the tiger to be attacking tapir (an almost pig like animal). Tapir are reasonably sized for the Sumatran tiger, and they also do not have any sort of tusk, horn or sharp protrusion to hurt a tiger with. But tigers were not found to be hunting the tapir as often as they thought. They instead were found to mostly be hunting Muntjac (a smaller, more adorable deer). They figured out that the reason for this occurrence was that tapir are found to be most active during the night, as in late night. Tapir are almost completely nocturnal. While occasionally a tiger will be out at this time, it’s quite dark and for most of them they are not really going anywhere of importance. Muntjac, poor creatures, are most active at the same time that the tigers are active, dawn and dusk. This makes them prime target to be tiger prey.
Sumatran tigers are beautiful creatures that are unfortunately on the endangered species list. Timid animals, not much information was know about them and how they interact with other animals and prey around them. With this study, not just tiger-prey interactions were found, but also activity patterns and knowledge on where they live. Hopefully with this new addition to the small amount of intelligence previously researched, the Sumatran tiger can slowly make a comeback out of endangerment.
Works Cited
Linkie, M., and M. S. Ridout. "Assessing Tiger-prey Interactions in Sumatran Rainforests." Journal of Zoology 284.3 (2010): 224-29. Academic Search Complete. Web. 15 Feb. 2012.
Hunting Whales to Preserve Them?
（Photo by Dalli58 )
When Japanese whaling ships return to Southern Ocean every year, they bring the international attention in addition to their whaling tools. Year after year, they take away a number of whales and leave the scenes of blood floating on the ocean. This bloody conduct has already drawn condemnations from all over the world, especially from New Zealand and Australia. But this ritual still carries on because whaling is a very controversial international issue. Rather than ecology, more and more people now regard it as a political issue, which can only be done via political ways. Not completely comprehending what drives Japanese to finish annual “ritual” and how Australia has appointed itself as a Southern Oceanic guardian, Adrian Peace argues the irreconcilable cultural perspectives of Japan prevents them from being consistent with Australian in this article, and how those cultural differences resulted in their political standpoint in whaling.
Australia uses the media such as TV, newspaper and radio to spread the idea that whales belong to them. Whales are considered as vulnerable and intelligent specie. Thus, their choice of coming back to the same place, like the southern ocean where Australia is located, is considered a self-induced behavior. In the moral sense, it is a behavior like the weak going for the asylum that drives the Australia to think they possess the whales. Under these situations, it causes the Australian to have responsibilities. Every year reposts of crowds gathering for whales rescues are easily seen on TV and newspaper, including the remote and little-inhabited islands. It is in their nature to preserve and rescue whales. Moreover, whales watch tours are elaborated to a high moral level that the tourists are not just paying to watch some marine animals, but rather they pay to get close to whales, human-like specie. Their money is used to help preserve them. This strategy extends role of “Protector of Whales” from Australian to tourists from all over the world.
After all, the whales become a symbol that should be approached with proper manners and humanities. Thus whatever actions would cause harm to them would be heavily criticized as barbaric, or cruel. However, Japan is one of the exceptions. For this pro-whaling side, people argue that it is one of Japanese honorable rituals to kill whales and eat their meat. Other than that, Arne Kalland argues that whale meat solved Northern Japanese famine in early 20 century, which makes it a common item on the menu and dinner able. Moreover, in Japanese character, the word for whales is kujira, which indicates it’s just a fish rather than a mammal. So in their view, fish is kill-able without bearing any sins. Even their dominant religion-Buddhism does not restrict the idea of eating fish, let alone some western condemnation thousands of miles away. It is worth noting that as the world increasingly criticized Japanese’s whaling as a source of food, Japanese established Institute for Cetanean Research cover up their whaling, an alternative in response to the world. The ICR was especially established for whales’ scientific research, justifying their hunting of whales. Although IRC’s function does remain controversial among the western critics, its research results are announced every year in the media. With these detailed work, the critics fail to make harsh comments as they did before, and thus they are gradually losing credibility in this case.
The author admits that although he tries hard to map out the cultural factors, there are actually more factors from other categories should be put into consideration. Historical factors that some traditions were brought back to life are forgotten. Economic factors that some markets are wiped out are prosperous. Also, factors of times and locations are influential. In expansion, ever since Australia closed its last whaling station in 1978, it strived to become the most powerful anti-whaling country in the world. In 1982 when IWC made an announcement to defer whaling, Japan was then forced to quit commercial whaling, however it established whales research program, called ICRW, which allowed whaling (“The Whaling Dispute In The South Pacific: A Japanese Perspective”) As whaling continually remains a controversial issue, this whaling war would never come to an end.
Works Cited
"The Whaling Dispute In The South Pacific: A Japanese Perspective." Journal Of East Asia & International Law 4.2 (2011): 449-456. Academic Search Complete. Web. 12 Feb. 2012.
Peace, Adrian. "The Whaling War: Conflicting Cultural Perspectives (Respond To This Article At." Anthropology Today 26.3 (2010): 5-9. Academic Search Complete. Web. 12 Feb. 2012.
What Type of Impact Would an AIDS Vaccine Have on Brazil?
Catherine Auten
Photo by gaby_bra
Because a large number of Brazilians are already infected, the government is highly committed to treating AIDS in the country. So, the study was conducted under the assumption that those who would be receiving the vaccine would also be receiving antiretroviral (ARV) treatment provided by the government (Stover, 1). They also assumed that a positive test result for HIV would not be a requisite for receiving the vaccination (Stover, 2). Given this information, the study shows results for a vaccine introduced in 2015 with 80% coverage achieved by 2020. The study offers the result of the vaccine in 2050 (Stover, 2-3).
The results found that a vaccine with only 40% effectiveness could reduce the number of HIV infections by 73% in the general population (Stover, 3). In medium or high risk individuals, i.e. men who have sex with other men or intravenous drug users, vaccinations could result in a 52% reduction in infections. (Stover, 3) This suggests that the vaccine is most beneficial when given to people who are likely to be exposed to the virus and likely to spread the virus to others. The report on the study specifically pointed out that the smallest impact would occur when the vaccine was given to only adolescents (Stover, 3). When using a 70% effective vaccine, the study showed that the number of new infections could be reduced by 92% (Stover, 3). With the 70% effective vaccine a 74% reduction in new infections could be seen when only vaccinating medium and high risk individuals (Stover, 3).
The study also address the possibility that those with the vaccine may behave with less inhibition because they feel protected (Stover, 5). For example, with the vaccine which offers a 40% efficacy rate, when condom use is gradually reduced, the reduction in infections is only 42% instead of the projected 73% when the “disinihibition” was not calculated (Stover, 5). This means that for a vaccine to have an optimal impact, individuals who receive the vaccine should still be educated on safe sex. Furthermore, it is imperative that medium and high risk individuals be vaccinated as well as low-risk and adolescent individuals. This ensures that the greatest impact can occur from use of the vaccine. However, even with these caveats, it is clear that investing in vaccination research will be well worth the cost, at least for Brazil.
Works Cited
John Stover, et al. "Modeling HIV Vaccines In Brazil: Assessing The Impact Of A Future HIV Vaccine On Reducing New Infections, Mortality And Number Of People Receiving ARV." Plos ONE 5.7 (2010): 1-10. Academic Search Complete. Web. 12 Feb. 2012.
Monday, February 6, 2012
Memory Drug Dispute
Constance Edmonds
Pharmaceuticals may be used in the future to tamper with and manipulate memory, causing many arguments over a human’s right to remember. There are two differing opinions on this subject. One, an excerpt, given by the US President’s Council on Bioethics (pages 219-230), argues that a human may lose one’s sense of self by having a memory manipulated with. The other, a Nature article, says to give memory tampering drugs a chance, saying that the good my actually outweigh the bad.
The negative side has many valid points to contradict the use of medicine that would neurologically damage or hinder part of the brain. The argument that a piece of a person’s identity or, ‘sense of self’ may be lost holds fast. Memories are a key part of what makes a person them self and, tampering with the things that have happened to them in the past may very well change the way a person thinks or acts. There would be no way of knowing for sure until something was actually tested on them. Another statement made is that we are morally obligated to remember certain actions. The possibility that these drugs may get out into the public if made legal on by prescription, would heighten the possibility for people to not be able to testify or witness accurately. A criminal could just as easily take memory altering drugs before and after his crimes, so as to not remember what he’d done. In these cases, pharmaceuticals that alter memories could potentially be dangerous to the public.
On the positive side, given by the article in Nature, memory altering drugs could actually help the suffering. Anyone who has suffered a traumatic experience could benefit greatly from taking things that would repress or suppress the memory. This would be very advantageous, especially in the case of soldiers returning from war. People could return to a life they had before this experience changed them. People who suffer from Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) have had life changing experiences that often hinder the way they live. If they had a drug that could potentially erase those dark memories, families could be together again the way it was before the event. One drug that has already been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) propranolol, may be used as an agent to put a damper on patients who have gone through an emotional stressful time or experience.
Pharmaceuticals that have the power to tamper with and potentially suppress or erase memory are being discussed as we speak. The potential to not have to remember a stressful or emotionally taxing experience is extremely tempting. However, we have to take into account the negative side of these drugs. The power that it possesses could get into the wrong hands like many illegal drugs that are in circulation now. We have to figure out if the effect is worth the risk, or is the risk too dangerous for us to take?
Works Cited
Kolber, Adam. "Neuroethics: Give Memory Altering Drugs A Chance." Nature.com. 17 Aug. 2011. Web. 6 Feb. 2012.
Schiller, Daniela, Marie H. Monfils, Candace M. Raio, David C. Johnson, Joseph E. LeDoux, and Elizabeth A. Phelps. "Preventing the Return of Fear in Humans Using Reconsolidation Update Mechanisms." Nature.com. 9 Dec. 2009. Web. 6 Feb. 2012.
Pharmaceuticals may be used in the future to tamper with and manipulate memory, causing many arguments over a human’s right to remember. There are two differing opinions on this subject. One, an excerpt, given by the US President’s Council on Bioethics (pages 219-230), argues that a human may lose one’s sense of self by having a memory manipulated with. The other, a Nature article, says to give memory tampering drugs a chance, saying that the good my actually outweigh the bad.
The negative side has many valid points to contradict the use of medicine that would neurologically damage or hinder part of the brain. The argument that a piece of a person’s identity or, ‘sense of self’ may be lost holds fast. Memories are a key part of what makes a person them self and, tampering with the things that have happened to them in the past may very well change the way a person thinks or acts. There would be no way of knowing for sure until something was actually tested on them. Another statement made is that we are morally obligated to remember certain actions. The possibility that these drugs may get out into the public if made legal on by prescription, would heighten the possibility for people to not be able to testify or witness accurately. A criminal could just as easily take memory altering drugs before and after his crimes, so as to not remember what he’d done. In these cases, pharmaceuticals that alter memories could potentially be dangerous to the public.
On the positive side, given by the article in Nature, memory altering drugs could actually help the suffering. Anyone who has suffered a traumatic experience could benefit greatly from taking things that would repress or suppress the memory. This would be very advantageous, especially in the case of soldiers returning from war. People could return to a life they had before this experience changed them. People who suffer from Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) have had life changing experiences that often hinder the way they live. If they had a drug that could potentially erase those dark memories, families could be together again the way it was before the event. One drug that has already been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) propranolol, may be used as an agent to put a damper on patients who have gone through an emotional stressful time or experience.
Pharmaceuticals that have the power to tamper with and potentially suppress or erase memory are being discussed as we speak. The potential to not have to remember a stressful or emotionally taxing experience is extremely tempting. However, we have to take into account the negative side of these drugs. The power that it possesses could get into the wrong hands like many illegal drugs that are in circulation now. We have to figure out if the effect is worth the risk, or is the risk too dangerous for us to take?
Works Cited
Kolber, Adam. "Neuroethics: Give Memory Altering Drugs A Chance." Nature.com. 17 Aug. 2011. Web. 6 Feb. 2012.
Schiller, Daniela, Marie H. Monfils, Candace M. Raio, David C. Johnson, Joseph E. LeDoux, and Elizabeth A. Phelps. "Preventing the Return of Fear in Humans Using Reconsolidation Update Mechanisms." Nature.com. 9 Dec. 2009. Web. 6 Feb. 2012.
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